Abstract

The study examines pragmatic shifts in rendering Alexander Pushkin’s story ‘The Fisherman and the Goldfish’ (1833) in two Greek (1962, 2006) and two English (1962, 2011) versions written almost fifty years apart intra-culturally. As society changed in the meantime, special attention is paid to (a) the scale of power distance and social hierarchy awareness manifested in the story, and (b) offensiveness and threat, namely whether conventions in social behaviour shifted, over the years. The study highlighted how the identities of the fisherman and his wife were portrayed. Both the researcher’s analysis of the data (etic approach) and a questionnaire addressing Greek-English bilingual respondents (emic approach) suggest heightened threat and offensiveness/aggression in the latest versions, while hierarchy awareness was rather lowering. Multimodal material (pictures) of the two Greek versions also manifest a shift in the scale of hierarchy as shown through the verbal material. The present comparative analysis adds to the growing body of research that attempts to perceive the theoretical and cultural significance of shifts in children’s literature, constructing shifting aspects of culture.

Keywords: social hierarchy, Pushkin, power distance, eticemic approach, children’s literature

1. Introduction

Alexander Pushkin’s The Fisherman and the Goldfish has been translated at least twice in Greek and in English. The plot is about an old fisherman who caught an unusual goldfish that was able to speak with a human voice. The fish promised ransom for its freedom, but the old man let it go without asking for a reward. The fisherman’s wife disagreed and forced the old man to return to the coast and make several and unreal demands over time. The goldfish fulfilled the old woman’s wishes, by gradually providing her with a new washtub, a peasant’s house (izba), a noble status and, finally, a tsar status, up until the day she became overly greedy and demanded to become an empress of the sea and dominate the goldfish. On his way back home, the old man found his wife sitting in front of their old hut, made of mud, along with their old broken washtub. The moral of the story is that one should be satisfied with less and that power can corrupt people while wealth and money do not bring happiness.

Pushkin’s language has been highly assessed. Poltoratzky (1964) reports that Pushkin considered Russian a “sonorous and expressive language, flexible and powerful in its phraseology” and suggested that “[i]t is necessary to include folk language in literature, for thanks to it arises a brilliance [sic], a pureness and a diamond hardness of style” (1964:3). Koyfman (2018) suggests that his impact on the Russian language has been enormous, because words, loan words and proverbs entered the Russian language through his literary production:

Pushkin didn’t just elevate colloquial Russian. He also literally added words to the language. Many of the loan words borrowed from other languages were first introduced in his literature, and he might be one of the most-quoted literary figures in Russia. Many Russian proverbs are lifted directly from his work (2018).

Children’s literature is often allegorical and may be open to multiple interpretations. The tale of The Fisherman and the Goldfish can be interpreted as a commentary on the corrupting influence of wealth and power. In his edited collection entitled Russian Magic Tales from Pushkin to Platonov, Chandler (2012) suggests that the tale The Fisherman and the Fish is one of Pushkin’s works which alluded to Catherine the Great and her ambition to rule over the Back Sea, bringing about two wars against Turkey, between 1768 and 1792. The old greedy wife in Pushkin’s fairytale may be an allusion to the political scene of the time: “Catherine, like Pushkin’s old woman, had usurped her husband’s place, having deposed her husband Peter III in 1762, before these wars (Chandler 2012: 26).

Pushkin wrote the tale during a time of great political and social change in Russia, and some of his works may be seen as reflecting the events and issues of his time. The Napoleonic Wars and the growing influence of the Enlightenment led to a movement for political reform and greater freedom during the 19th century, when Alexander Pushkin lived and wrote. Additionally, there were economic, social, and cultural changes occurring in Russia during this time, including the growth of a middle class and the spread of education and literacy. He often talks about uncontrollable desire versus the use of reasoning, which the tale suggests: “Pushkin’s thought is often dialectical. The symptoms and causes of uncontrollable desire provoke him to consider the uses of reason” (Kahn 2008: 298). Likewise, in his famous poem Eugene Onegin, the titular character struggles with his emotions and his sense of duty and honor, ultimately making a decision that has tragic consequences. The tension between reason and emotion can allude to the fisherman and his wife, respectively, and it can be seen as dialectic, involving a synthesis of opposing ideas.

Pushkin was known for his mastery of language and his ability to use a wide range of literary devices and techniques to create poetry that was both beautiful and expressive. In ‘The Fisherman and the Goldfish’, Pushkin uses language in a variety of ways to create an engaging and imaginative tale. Some signs of Pushkin's mastery of language in this story include his use of imagery and figurative language, such as telling, realistic and descriptive language to create vivid and imaginative images, such as when he describes the fisherman catching the goldfish or the fisherman's wife becoming a queen. He also uses literary devices, such as personification, repetition, and alliteration, to add depth and complexity to the tale. The tone, the mood and the atmosphere in the story are set through plenty of allegories, such as the colors and the turbulence of the sea whenever the fisherman asks for a favour on his wife’s behalf. Pushkin uses rhyme and rhythm to create a sense of musicality and harmony in the story, adding to the overall beauty and appeal of the tale.

‘The Fisherman and the Goldfish’ is a classic and beloved story that has been enjoyed by readers around the world for many years. Greek readers, especially children, find the tale particularly adorable for a variety of reasons, including the imaginative and engaging nature of the story, the compelling characters and plot, and the use of vivid and descriptive language to create a sense of wonder and magic. Some signs of Pushkin's mastery of language in this story include his use of imagery and figurative language, which may also contribute to the tale's appeal to Greek readers. The story's themes of love, loss, and the consequences of greed and selfishness may also resonate with Greek readers and add depth and meaning to the tale.

2. Literature review

2.1 Norms in children’s literature

Children's literature is a diverse and wide-ranging genre, and different works may contain different themes, characters, and messages. There are some common norms or conventions that are often found in children's literature. Some of these norms include simple and straightforward language that is easy for children to understand, characters that are relatable and aspirational for children and plots that are easy to follow and contain clear conflicts and resolutions. A large and growing body of literature has investigated the challenges of translating children's literature and expressive language with extensive focus on effective translation strategies (Epstein 2012). A translator acts as a “mediator, as one who facilitates the negotiating 'dialogue' between source text and target audience. Nowhere else is the mediating role of the translator so strongly felt as in the translation of children's literature” (van Coillie and Verschueren 2006: v). Children's literature is often intended to be universal and to appeal to readers from different cultural backgrounds. However, cultural references, values, and norms can sometimes be lost in translation, leading to a text that may be confusing or less meaningful to readers from different cultural backgrounds. Biculturalism can be an important factor to consider when translating children's literature because it can affect the way a text is understood and received by readers. Nida (1993) suggests that “for truly successful translating, biculturalism is even more important than bilingualism, since words only have meaning in terms of the cultures in which they function” (1993: 82).

Another important challenge in children’s literature relates to changes in society which may be reflected in the reality the source text constructs. For instance, Alston (2008) suggests that concepts like the ‘family’ change over time, as society develops, and children’s literature should allow representations of family contexts which may potentially deconstruct traditional notions of ‘family’:

The future of children’s literature and its representation of the family are at a crucial point. In the first decade of the twenty-first century it is teetering on a fence, on one side of which there is the safety of nostalgia and tradition as children’s literature encourages the normative family, while on the other hand there is the increasing acceptance that the family has changed, which offers the opportunity of deconstructing ideologies and myths which have traditionally constructed the family (Alston 2008: 136).

In the present context, the question arises whether the relationship of the fisherman and his wife is shaped differently in the latest target versions, in terms of threat/aggression, social hierarchy or power dynamics intra-culturally. Overall, translators of children’s literature undertake the challenging task of reshaping social reality in order to enable children to gain access to foreign literatures and cultures. By introducing children to new and diverse perspectives, translators can broaden their understanding of the world and promote cultural understanding and appreciation.

Pushkin conceptualized translators as vehicles, namely, as horses changed at the posthouses of civilization and the question arises whether and how the works have changed in the journey across time (Nabokov 1964). As suggested, the aim of the study is to examine how the tale has changed over time into Greek. The Fisherman and the Goldfish is written in verse and translating verse has been a focus of attention (Clayton 1983) in literature studies, together with challenges and strategies used in children’s literature (Alla 2015). The focus in this study is how impoliteness is constructed across languages and times in children’s literature.

2.2 Face, im/politeness and translation

In their theory of politeness, Brown and Levinson (1978) propose that face represents the positive social value which individuals claim for themselves in interaction with others which can be enhanced or damaged. They describe two types of face: positive face, which is a person's desire to be liked and respected, and negative face, which is a person's desire to be autonomous and have their freedom of action respected.

Spencer-Oatey (2000) defines face as "concerned with people's sense of worth, dignity and identity, and is associated with issues such as respect, honor, status, reputation and competence" (2000: 3). This definition builds on the concept of face as it was originally developed by Brown and Levinson (1978) and expands upon it to include additional elements that are related to a person's sense of self-worth and dignity. Spencer-Oatey’s definition highlights the importance of face in social interactions and the ways in which it is connected to issues of respect, honor, status, and reputation. It also emphasizes the role of face in shaping a person's sense of identity and their sense of themselves in a social context. Questions in this study relate to whether the fisherman’s face is threatened by his wife’s aggression and how this dynamic developed as time went by in a target version c. 50 years later.

Brown and Levinson (1978) also describe two types of power hierarchy awareness: ‘deference’ and ‘defiance’. Deference is the recognition and acceptance of the power hierarchy in society, in which the lower-power individuals show respect and consideration for the higher-power individuals. Defiance, on the other hand, is the rejection of the power hierarchy, in which the lower-power individual challenges the higher-power individual's authority or attempts to assert their own power. For example, in The Fisherman and the Goldfish both types of power hierarchy awareness, deference and defiance, are detected, as the fisherman either accepts that his wife is a higher-power individual and treats her with respect (see ST7) or is ironic towards her (see ST5 assuming defiance) although he is a lower-power individual. Brown and Levinson (1978) argue that people use politeness strategies in order to minimize the threat to the positive face of themselves and others and to maximize their positive face.

Im/politeness theories have dealt with the concept of ‘face’ as a fundamental aspect of social interaction. Face-Threatening-Acts (FTAs) FTAs are actions or behaviours that are perceived as threatening to a person's face, or self-image. Brown and Levinson (1978) suggest that Face Threatening Acts (FTAs) are calculated on the basis of three social variables: 1. social distance, 2. relative power and 3. the absolute ranking of the imposition (R). In the present context, the question is whether and how language changes in target versions, when the social variables are modified, for instance in cases when the wife’s power increases in the course of action.

The relational dynamics between interlocutors may intentionally shift in translation (Locher and Sidiro­poulou 2021), even multimodally (Sidiropoulou 2020), because of variation in ideologies and cultural practice over time. In discussing social constructs, Kress and van Leeuwen (2006:79) refer to classification processes which rank interlocutors to each other visually: Classificational processes relate participants to each other in terms of a ‘kind of’ relation, a taxonomy: at least one set of participants will play the role of Subor­dinates with respect to at least one other participant, the Superordinate (2006:79).

Classificational processes may involve hierarchy, with some participants being considered superior or more powerful than others. These power dynamics can influence the way that people interact with each other and shape the dynamics of their social relationships. The tale of The Fisherman and the Goldfish can be seen as an example of how power dynamics and classificational processes play out in social interaction over time. In the tale, the fisherman has more power and influence than the goldfish, as he is able to catch it, with the fisherman playing the role of the Superordinate and the goldfish playing the role of the Subordinate. When the fisherman's wife becomes a mighty lady, she gains wealth and status, which would allow her to assert her authority and influence, within the relationship. In this scenario, the fisherman's wife would become the Superordinate in the classificational process, while the fisherman would become the Subordinate. This shift in the power dynamics between them would be reflected in the language and nonverbal communication they use, with the fisherman's wife using more directive and assertive language and the fisherman using more deferential and accommodating language. Overall, Kress and van Leeuwen's theory (2006) suggest that the transformation of the fisherman's wife into a mighty lady would significantly alter the power dynamics between them and shape the way they interact with each other. Analysis will show that classificational processes in the story are represented both verbally and visually, in ways that are understood by readers.

The current research can thus fit into the broader context of (im)politeness studies, building on previous research. The study could also draw on research on language and aggression, such as the work of social psychologists (Mehrabian and Wiener 1967, McIntyre and Bousfield 2017) who have studied the ways in which language is used to express hostility or aggression and the factors that influence the perception of threat and offensiveness. By situating the study within this broader research context, the study adds to the existing knowledge in the field and can provide a foundation for future research in this area.

3. Methodology

The research focuses on textual indicators of power relations, scales of offensiveness and threat and the way they are portrayed in the Greek and English versions, over the years. As suggested, it analyses two Greek (1962, 2006) and two English versions (1962, 2011) of the tale to examine how the shaping of interpersonal dynamics is realized in the story. Phenomena are categorized and presented in the data analysis section under the subheadings ‘scales of threat and aggression’ and ‘power distance awareness’.

Paratextual elements, such as pictures from the books, are also discussed and interpreted. The study selected emic data gathered through questionnaires that were handed out to 15 female English-Greek bilinguals and English-Greek-Russian trilinguals, of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. Questionnaires were administered to the participants in person and contained primarily non-numerical data, such as open-ended responses and data, which required a ranking of different incidents on a scale of 1 to 2, with 1 being the least aggressive and to 2 most aggressive or offensive, on the scales of aggressiveness and threat manifested in the story. The questionnaire was carefully designed to ensure that the questions are clear and unbiased, and that they would adequately elicit the relevant information. The first four questions of the questionnai­re asked participants to rate scales of offensiveness and hierarchy, and explain why they thought this was the case. The last three open-ended questions asked respondents about how paratextual elements like visual illustration material may have contributed to the textual indicators of offensiveness and power distance.

The questionnaire data intended to elicit patterns of behaviour, themes, and meanings in the responses while comparing target versions per language and year of publication to gain a deeper understanding of differences, as well as how these differences might reflect the cultural significance of shifts in children’s literature. This type of analysis involved both qualitative and quantitative methods, measuring preference for one or another feature with statistical representations of scales of aggression/threat and power distance. The analysis categorized findings, attempted to identify any patterns or trends and to highlight the implications for the research query.

4. Data Analysis

As suggested, the aim of the study is to identify whether and how the representation of the power dynamics between the fisherman and his wife shifted over the years as a result of shifts in female social roles. Scales of threat/aggression and power-distance/hierarchy-awareness are the phenomena the sections will refer to.

4.1 Scales of threat and aggression

Example 1 shows that the earliest versions carry lower offensiveness and threat. Both TTa item ‘γκρινιάζη’ (grumbles) and TTc ‘scolded’ convey lower offensiveness than TTb ‘βρίζει’ and TTd ‘cursing’ items. ‘Scolded’ suggests that the fisherman's wife is expressing her displeasure or anger through criticism or reprimand, while ‘cursing’ suggests that she is using more extreme or profane language to express her anger. The item ‘but she was cursing more fiercely than ever’ suggests a higher level of aggression on the part of the fisherman's wife, as it implies that she is using more extreme or abusive language to express her anger.

Likewise, in example 2, the old man complains to the fish: TTa and TTc items (‘Δε με αφήνει ήσυχο ούτε στιγμή’/ ‘She gives me no rest for a second’) carry lower threat awareness and annoyance than TTd and TTd, where conventionality (‘άσπρη μέρα απ΄αυτήν δεν βρίσκω’ [allowing me no peace of mind]) heightens the old man’s annoyance, which TTd ‘shouting and swearing, cursing’ making it worse. The two phrases suggest different levels of aggression on the part of the fisherman's wife with the second one implying a higher level of aggression because of the use of shouting and swearing, cursing which shapes how aggressive the fisherman's wife is perceived to be.

In example 3, the old woman attacked her servants. TTa item ‘τις μάλλωνε κατσουφιασμένη’ (she scolded them sullenly) and (TTc) item ‘cuffed them and rated them roundly’. TTb and TTd options are also more aggressive: she beats and pulls them from the forelocks (TTc) or slaps them ‘pulling their hair’ (TTd). The items ‘beats’ and ‘pulls’ suggest physical aggression, while the item ‘sullenly’ suggests a more subdued or passive form of aggression. Thus, the second phrase implies a higher level of aggression on the part of the fisherman's wife, as it suggests that she is using physical force to express her anger. Accordingly, in TTc and TTd, the use of ‘slapping’ and ‘pulling’ suggest a higher level of threat and aggression, while the use of ‘cuffed’ and ‘rated’ suggests a lower level of aggression.

In example ΤΤ4b, she is most aggressive towards her husband (see ‘βλάκα’ [idiot]) and asks him to ‘bow low’ (TTd) in order for the fish to satisfy her demands. The fisherman’s wife, a noble lady at the time, choses idiot, bow low and ‘free queen’ which suggest a commanding figure who is a threat to others around.

In example 5, the old man is being aggressive and ironic towards the wife (TTb), in TTa he is more gentle, less threatening, less offensive and not ironic. In TTd, he is more aggressive than TTc. TTb suggests a more confrontational or accusatory attitude and implies a higher level of aggression on the part of the fisherman. The fisherman is challenging the old lady's aspirations to become a queen and suggesting that she is not fit for the role. He is also implying that the old lady is not acting appropriately, and that she needs to learn to talk like a real lady. This is an example of defiance, a type of verbal behaviour, resisting the authority or status of the person being addressed.

In example 6, TTb paints an explicit negative identity of the old woman, calling her στρίγγλα (a hag, a nagging woman). The item hag may be perceived as more pejorative or derogatory than the item ‘the old woman’ which is a neutral term for an elderly woman.

The data in section 4.1 show that the latest versions, both English and Greek, favour a more threatening version of the wife and a more ironic and aggressive old man.

4. 2 Power distance and hierarchy awareness

This subsection gives evidence of social distance and awareness of social stratification. Some versions are more aware of hierarchical relations between interlocutors, assuming lower or higher social distance between them. Aggressive instances will also emerge, but the focus in this section will be on hierarchy awareness and how this is manifested across versions. In example 7, TTa shows that the old man greets his wife by taking into consideration her high rank, until she becomes a queen when he addresses her honorifics like your majesty/highness. This is not the case with the other versions, where the old man uses less hierarchically aware honorifics. In this incident, the fisherman is using respectful language such as Milady (‘αρχόντισσα’) and great lady (‘μεγά­λη κυρία’) to address the old lady, and he is also expressing a hope that she will be satisfied. He is also bowing, which is a physical gesture of respect and submission. All these elements suggest that the fisherman is showing deference to the old lady and her position. He is acknowledging her status and her authority and expressing his willingness to comply with her wishes. The latest versions are less aware of the power distance between them (see TTc ‘Greetings’ vs. TTd ‘Good day’ or TTa ‘Προσκυνώ’ (bow) vs. TTb ‘Γειά σου’ (Hello). This is also shown by the diminutive of TTb item ‘ψυχή’ (soul).

In example 8, the old lady urges the old man to bow down in worship of the goldfish and ask him to make her a sea-empress and the fish to follow her orders (TTa). Here again, the version is aware of the hierarchy royalty may assume. The version also holds the goldfish in high esteem, in contrast to TTb where the old woman expects her husband to simply bow to the fish (the ‘gold’-prefix has disappeared, and a diminutive suffix degrades the power of the fish) and ask him to make her a sea-empress and do her favors: in TTb hierarchy awareness has been lowered. The same goes for the English versions, there the gold-prefix is also gone, and TTc commands and ‘errands’ have become TTd whatever I ask for, which carries no implication of hierarchy awareness. In TTa, where the hierarchy awareness is high, the old lady's positive face is maintained as she is aware of her status as a queen and expects the old man to respect and worship the goldfish. This suggests that she is respected and holds a position of authority. Furthermore, the goldfish is held in high esteem, which improves the representation of the old lady. The latest versions seem to display lower awareness of social hierarchy and a more egalitarian approach to relational dymamics.

Analysis of the data seems to show that as the feature of hierarchy awareness lowers, aggression heightens (see Figure 1). Changes in such pragmatic features can be influenced by a variety of factors, including cultural and social changes, shifts in political and economic systems, and changes in the way that language is used and valued within a society. The target versions exhibited changes in pragmatic features over time, including changes in the awareness of hierarchy and the level of threat and aggression expressed.

Analysis shows that the language and communication affect portrayal of characters in stories. A study by Sullivan and Konopak (2007) suggests that the language used in children's books can influence children's understanding of emotions and social relationships.

The next section implements an emic approach to meaning-making by considering lay people’s assessment of the pragmatic value of examples.

Figure 1. Development of pragmatic features in Pushkin’s target versions over time (1962-2011)

5. Questionnaire analysis

The study used a mixed methods approach that combined both qualitative and quantitative methods, through the research query. The participants were asked to rate the scales of aggressiveness and offensiveness in different incidents of the fairytale in order to collect data on the power dynamics between the fisherman and his wife.

A questionnaire addressing 15 bilingual respondents asked them to rate features of the text. The first question referred to the point when the fisherman narrated what had happened at the sea to his wife and she asked him to do otherwise. Respondents were asked to rank version features, on a scale from 1 (least aggressive and threatening) to 2 (most aggressive) per language, by adding a number next to the a, b, c, d indications. They agreed that TTa was less aggressive and threatening than TTb (Greek) As explanations they provided the following:

Text B is more aggressive because of the use of the swear word βλάκας (idiot) which is derogatory and the diminutive ‘ψαράκι’ (little fish) […] The use of imperatives also enhances the level of aggressiveness. She is demanding to become a ‘tsaritsa’ [...] TTa uses plainer voca­bu­lary while the second one is more aggressive because it contains Face-Threatening Acts (fragments of postgraduate assessment).

73 percent of the respondents mentioned that TTc was less aggressive (another 27 percent mentioned that they found TTd to be less aggressive than TTc). The justified their options. Results show that TTd is more aggressive than TTc, and that aggressive behaviour seems to rise over time.

Figure 2. Measuring aggression and offensiveness

The second question referred to the point in the narration when the fisherman’s wife found out that he did not ask for ransom from the goldfish. Respondents were asked to rate which TT sounded more offensive. They were again asked to rank the versions per language, on a scale from 1 (least offensive) to 2 (most offensive) by adding a number next to the a, b, c, d indications of the questionnaire options. Results are summarized below:

Figure 3. Measuring aggression and offensiveness

The third question comes from the point when the fisherman replied to his wife’s irrational requests. The respondents were asked which TT better portrays the hierarchy awareness of the old man when he talks to his wife. They were asked to comment per language as in the previous questions. 60 percent of the respondents in both Greek and English versions (1962) mentioned that the former translations, portrayed stronger hierarchy awareness more than the latest versions of the story. The most surprising aspect of the data is the fact that the Greek TT of 1962 (Text A) evidently used the English version of 162 (Text C) and both portrayed the same level of hierarchy awareness according to respondents. More precisely, the students mentioned:

I think that versions A and C better portray that the old man is aware of his wife’s higher position. The reason is that those two versions are not that offensive. The other two (b and d) are more offensive both in the vocabulary used and in the way they present the old man to be addressing the wife.

Results suggest that hierarchy awareness seems to lower over time

Figure 4. Measuring hierarchy awareness

In question 4, the instance referred to the point in the narration when the fisherman came back, and his wife had been transformed into a noble lady. Respondents were asked to comment on the level of hierarchy awareness of the old man when he talks to his wife. 80 percent of the respondents mentioned that hierarchy awareness is higher in Text A (Greek version 1962) and 73 percent mentioned that it is more profound in the English translation of 1962. More precisely:

Figure 5. Measuring hierarchy awareness

The fifth question of the questionnaire used paratextual material (illustrations from the Greek versions) and respondents were asked the same question, namely, to contrast the hierarchy awareness which the versions assume, by looking at a picture accompanying TTa and TTb (which were shared by the Greek and English versions of 1962 and 2006, respectively). The two illustrations showed the same scene of the narration, namely, when the old man comes back from the coast and finds a palace, with his wife sitting on the throne. Respondents unanimously agreed that the 1962 picture highlights the old man’s hierarchy awareness towards his wife by mentioning the following:

The man keeps his head down while talking to her, he bows in front of his wife. Because of the rags the man wears, the second picture presents him as a beggar. He appears to be in pain and significantly older. The old man is more bowed down, not even looking at his wife probably because of her authority. This authority is also strengthened by the presence of more guards/ noblemen compared to picture 1. He seems to be submissive to her, his posture assumes obedience, loyalty. The fisherman is portrayed bowing low while addressing his now ‘tsaritsa’ wife which showcases a stronger hierarchy awareness on his part.

The sixth question gives four descriptions of the palace and asks which one of the pictures is closer to the respondent’s understanding of how the new palace is described in detail by the text producer. Almost all respondents mentioned that the first picture (2006) is closer to their understanding of the palace.

The last question of the questionnaire concerned the age groups that each of the pictures addressed. The respondents unanimously agreed that the second picture (2006) addresses adolescents or adults, while 40 percent of the respondents mentioned that the first picture addresses children.

Figure 6. Audience age identity

6. Discussion and significance of research

This study discussed how certain key pragmatic themes are portrayed in target versions, namely, how phenomena of ‘threat’/‘aggression’ and ‘power distance awareness’ emerged through the translations, and whether of how they shifted over the years (1962-2011). The analysis showed that while the feature of ‘hierarchy awareness’ lowered, ‘aggression’ heightened through the years, which was also confirmed by the visual material of the two Greek versions (1962 and 2006).

Visual material often has a huge potential in complementing the verbal message[1] and children’s literature is not an exception. In this case, it manifested a shift in the scale of hierarchy awareness, as respondents confirmed. Another significant aspect is how each version affected the reader’s interpretation of the fisherman’s and the wife’s positive or negative face through various incidents. Their identities seemed in tune with assumed social norms at the time of translation.

The findings reported, in this study, shed light on shifts occurring in children’s literature translation practice involving the transfer of Pushkin’s work into Greek and English. The insights gained from this study may be explained in terms of how translators understand their role, in transferring Pushkin’s lyric intelligence. The empirical findings in this study allow an understanding of the scales of threat, offensiveness and hierarchy awareness in the Greek and English target versions. The fact that hierarchy awareness lowers and aggressiveness heightens in the latest translations, seems to be the postmodern society’s manner to update Pushkin’s moral message. The study adds to our understanding of the challenges translators of children’s literature face, especially on the less examined language pairs Russian-English and Russian-Greek, illustrating that the identities of the fisherman and his wife were portrayed differently in the four target versions which affected the characters’ positive and negative faces.

The Greek target text (1962) and the English text (1962) shared similarities concerning the communication styles they used and the same illustrations. For instance, in ST2 ‘my old woman is madder than ever, she gives me no rest for a second’ is a literal translation in Greek (1962) ‘Η γριά μου αγρίεψε πιο πολύ από τις άλλες φορές, Δε με αφήνει ήσυχο ούτε στιγμή’ (My old woman got madder than ever. She gives me no rest for a second).

Vermeer (1984) introduced the concept of ‘relay translation’ as a way to describe the process of translating a text through an intermediary language. He argued that this type of translation can be useful in certain circumstances, such as when the translator lacks the necessary language skills to translate directly from the source to the target language. This may be the case when different target versions seem identical, at points.

The 1962 version was more domesticating, whereas the latest versions had more foreignizing signs.  The earlier translations used familiar terms to the target audience as opposed to the Greek (2006) version which used cultural elements such as the popular traditional Russian sweet prianik (пряник). Similarly, the translator of the English target text (2011) maintained the ST term tsaritsa throughout the translation, which is in alignment with Venuti’s (1995) foreignization, in which a translator aims to preserve cultural and linguistic features of the source text. This approach may challenge dominant norms and conventions of the target culture aiming at a deeper understanding of the source culture.

Some of the limitations of the study may concern the number of texts and respondents (the 15 participants), which may not allow generalizations about the whole of literature over time, although previous studies which contrast literary target versions into Greek agree with the findings of this study, namely, that offensiveness heightens in later versions (Kyriakou 2022, Zacharia 2022).

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